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Young Arctic Researchers & Features

The 5th Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition
In beginning July of 2012 the Snow Dragon started its expedition to the Arctic. The voyage was launched from Qingdao in China. The 5^th Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition (CHINARE 5) will sail for around 6 weeks before reaching Iceland in August.

The voyage to Iceland will strengthen the two countries Arctic research cooperation further and during its stay in Iceland the public will have an opportunity visit the Snow Dragon.

Xuelong, the Snow Dragon, is the icebreaker of the Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC). It is the largest non-nuclear powered icebreaker in the world. It was built as an ice-strengthened cargo ship, in Ukraine in 1993 but is now a floating laboratory with state of the art facilities and equipment for polar research. It was modified in 1994. The Xuelong is 167m long, almost 23 meters wide and the ice class is B1 level, it can break through 1.1m of ice, including 20cm of snow by 1,5 knots continuously.

It is both a supply vessel for the four research stations PRIC has, one in Svalbard and three in Antarctica, and a scientific research platform in both Poles.

This will be the fifth expedition of the icebreaker in the Arctic; the others took place in 1999, 2003, 2008 and 2010. Although CHINARE 1 and 2 were only one-year projects they provided a framework for comparative research in the future within the investigated areas. CHINARE 3 and 4 were conducted under the International Polar Year (IPY) and raised the knowledge level in China about the Arctic’s rapid changes.

The Xuelong, research vessel for the 5^th Chinese expedition, is equipped with advanced systems for self-contained navigation and for weather observation, both extremely important qualities for polar expeditions. There are also excellent facilities for the scientist.

The icebreaker has a data processing center and seven laboratories with over 500sq meters of working space, it has operational equipment, a freezer to store samples, a low temperature cultivation room, a clean laboratory, a marine biological laboratory, a marine chemical laboratory, a geological laboratory, and a CTD winch, a biological winch, a geological laboratory, and a hallow-section device of EK-500 model.

Furthermore it contains three operating boats and a helicopter for the transportation and research purposes in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.

China is now designing a new research icebreaker, to be launched in 2014. It will be equipped with the most advanced appliances for marine, polar and astronomical research. The icebreaker will be stronger then the Xuelong, able to sail through rougher ice conditions.

The scientists and staff on board the Snow Dragon work in several fields of research. The field work area is very broad and covers Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Chukchi Plateau, Canada Basin and the High sea of Norwegian Sea.

Several research points will be re-visited, from the other four Chinese National Arctic Research Expeditions. Most of them are located in the Bering Sea, the Chukchi area and the Canada basin.

However, the High Norwegian Sea will be explored by CHINARE for the first time. China is famous from their research stations in Ny Alesund and Svalbard. The opportunity to explore the Norwegian High Sea greatly contributes to the stations ‘scientific research.

The main subjects of research in the expedition are divided into four fields: physical oceanography and sea ice, marine meteorology, marine geology, marine chemistry and atmospheric chemistry, marine biology and ecosystem research.

The research´s main objectives are to include the survey of the marine environment and sea – ice – air system, geologic record of rapid changes in the marine environment and the research on the carbon flux, nutrients and bio geochemical cycle in the Arctic.

However, what is more important, during the expedition, the scientists try to study the impact of Arctic changes on Chinese climate and investigate the Arctic ecosystem response to global change.

Click here to read more about the research fields during the 5th Chinese Arctic expedition.

The expedition is jointly organized by the Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration (CAA) and the State Oceanic Administration of China (SOA). The Polar Research Institution of China (PRIC) is the research body of CAA.

Please, be referred to CHINARE Portal to find out more about the expedition. To read more about the Arctic shipping, please access the Shipping Portlet and visit Interactive Mapping System.

Source: Chinare Portal

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Chinare Portal

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July 13, 2012
Ideas for the world or few words on this year´s biggest event on sustainable development – Rio+20

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

World Commission on Environment and Development

Brundtland Report 1987

Sustainable development is recognized as the pattern of economic growth in which the use of natural resources meets population´s needs in environmentally friendly way. Initially, the term was used by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. Since then it has become the most commonly used definition to describe the economic growth.

The history of United Nations involvement in the world´s sustainable development goes back to 1972 when industrialized and developing nations gathered in Stockholm to discuss and find global solutions to such a problems as housing, food and water security, healthy and productive environment.

In 1980, the International Union for the Conservation of Natural Resources did publish the World Conservation Strategy, which provided the precursory concept of sustainable development. The Strategy adopted a collective approach which stated that the conservation of nature cannot be achieved without an elimination of poverty and misery of millions of people. The idea stressed the interdependence of conservation and development and acknowledged that unless the fertility and productivity of the planet are safeguarded, the human population´s future is at risk.

Few years later, the World Commission on Environment and Development was created and presented as an independent body of United Nations General Assembly. It implemented the Global Agenda for Change, in which the social, economic, cultural and environmental global issues were wove together and the attempt of providing solutions to those problems was made.

In June 1992, the first UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro. The Event created the Agenda for Environment and Development which is now called Agenda 21 and included Rio Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Statement of Forest Principles. Agenda 21 has been monitored by established in 1993 Commission on Sustainable Development.

A decade after the Rio Declaration, the World Summit on Sustainable Development took place. It aimed to renew the global commitment with regards to sustainable development by creating the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation that would suggest changes to global unsustainable patterns, bring up ideas for poverty reduction, protection and management of natural resources. What is more, Johannesburg Plan of Implementation established the institutional framework for sustainable development at the international level. On 24^th December 2009 the UN General Assembly agreed to hold the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012.

Exactly twenty years after the adoption of Agenda 21, representatives of governments, private sectors, NGOs and other stakeholders, gather in Brazil to focus on poverty reduction and advancement of social equity and environmental protection.

Since 1992 a lot of progress has been made mainly on elaboration of regional, national and local sustainable development strategies, the adoption of binding agreement on Climate Change, the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and associated international and regional action plans. What is more, the ratification of the Aarhus Convention on environmental democracy, by forty four states in the UNECE region.

The one could argue, that today´s global crisis (of democracy, world´s economics and finance), biodiversity loss, climate change and food security issue were sustained on unprecedented rate despite of all the efforts.

Nevertheless, states – parties to the Convention, combines efforts to emphasize a holistic, equitable and far – sighted approach to decision making processes at all levels. The joined initiative during the gathering in Brazil, will present not only strong economic performance but intergenerational and intragenerational equity. The ideas for the meeting rest on integration and balanced consideration of social, economic and environmental goals and objectives in both public and private sectors of decision making process.

This year´s event touches two major themes: green economy in the context of sustainable development poverty eradication and the institutional framework for sustainable development. Further, those were divided into seven thematic sessions, including problems of the world´s unemployment, development of cites as hubs for modern ideas, food water and energy security, major problems of oceans ´ecosystems plus the strategies for prevention and recovery after the natural disasters.

The UNCSD, Rio +20, is without a doubt an intergovernmental and interdisciplinary process driven by the UN member states with the full involvement of the UN bodies and Major Groups. Member states led the meetings before the event in order to discuss the objective and themes of the Conference, so it could be convent at the highest possible level. The preparatory work of the states – parties to the UN is fully transparent and can be accessed by the public on the UNCSD website.

Close to 500 side events take place during Rio +20. Those are mainly organized by governments ‘representatives, organizations from the United Nations system and other various international and intergovernmental organizations. Sustainable Development Dialogue days will take its place at the Summit.

It has been long understood that the sustainable development is not possible to be achieved by the governments without democratic involvement of citizens. Their active participation is organized in Major Groups, where all sectors of society and all types of people, including consumers, workers and trade unions, business and industry´s representatives, farmers, students and researchers, educators and indigenous peoples, come together to contribute their local ideas.

United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development significantly creates the opportunity for the world´s leaders to bring up the paradigm of sustainable lifestyles and establish the usable framework for future generations. The event is also an important symbol as it celebrates 20th anniversary of Agenda 21.

More importantly, Rio +20 is a chance for the states – parties to the Convention, to declare the fulfillment of commitments made with regards to sustainable development policies. The Conference program in its vision highlights the critical involvement of various stakeholders to strengthen the rights of environment, the rights of nature.

Source: Rio +20, United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development

June 15, 2012
Future trajectories for the Arctic investments

Future trajectories for the Arctic investments – highlights from the new Lloyds´ report: “Arctic opening: opportunity and risk in the High North”

The Arctic is comprised of a large ocean area and land areas of eight states: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia, USA (Alaska), Finland, Sweden and Iceland. The Arctic’s most pronounced feature, at least until very recently, has been the large ice-covered ocean. However, significant changes are taking place in the Arctic Region, both on land and especially on the maritime areas.

The 2004 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment listed the range of impacts that are occurring in a warming Arctic due to the human-influenced climatic change. The report concluded that the air temperature has risen at twice the rate as in the rest of the world in the past few decades and there is increasing evidence of widespread melting of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice.

The Arctic Region has been under ongoing transformation. Unprecedented and disruptive changes seem to occur more rapidly than anywhere else in the world. Increasing average temperatures cause the rise of the sea level and changes to seasonal length.

Scientists and researchers from various international and national institutions have tried to predict the date when the Arctic Ocean will become free of sea ice during summers. As suggested by IPCC report, this might occur by the end of 21st century.

In April 2012 Lloyds, which is the leading insurance market specialist, conducting business in over 200 countries and territories worldwide, presented the report on risks and opportunities in the High North, where the issue of sustainable development was strongly highlighted.

Over the last decade, Northern Sea Route (NSR) has already started to see the increase of summer cruise traffic, mostly by Russian – owned vessels. However the other activities, from international tourism to scientific research, also present the potential increase in the coming years.

As the new Lloyds´ Arctic report states, the infrastructure to support investments in Northern Region is very limited. That could cause a great risk to the Arctic unspoiled environment with a complex and very fragile ecosystems. It is suggested that in terms of accidences occurrence, such as an oil spills or blowouts, the consequences for the delicate environment could be more profound than in other world´s regions.

As estimated by Lloyds, the future investment in the NSR development could go up to 10 million dollars. Growing interest in four key sectors including mineral resource, fisheries, logistics (especially Arctic shipping) and tourism will prove to be significant dimensions in economic development. As predicted by the authors of the report, the epicenter for those investments will reach the area of Barents Sea, northern Russia, Norway, Alaska and eastern Iceland.

Already, summer shipping season along the NSR is marked by a new development. In the summer of 2011, the Russian-owned Vladimir Tikhonov was noted as the first supertanker to sail through the NSR with loaded cargo exceeding 120,000 tones of gas condensate. In the same time Japanese – owned Sanko Odyssey, with the load of cargo exceeding 66,000 tons of iron ore concentrate, did complete a voyage from northern Russia to Jingtang in China.

Summer 2012 is very likely to bring the opportunity for the Korean built and Norwegian – owned tanker, Ribera del Duero Knutsen, to become the first LNG carrier to transit the Northern Sea Route from northern part of Norway to Japan.

Those indicators show significant interest from the Asian states in the Arctic Region. In May 2012 governments of South Korea and Norway came together to discuss the possibility of future partnership and mutual interest in developing high class infrastructure, including coastguards, search and rescue and hydrographic services for the future traffic increase.

As the potential oil and gas resources around the Norwegian coast are more predictable, the government expects the Snohvit gas field and the Goliat oil field to attract investments which might reach 9.2bn$.

As the sailing season extends, shipping companies will face the reduced cost of marine operations as distances between ports in Western Europe and Japan, eastern Russia and north – eastern China or Korea Peninsula, are almost 40 % shorter through the NSR than traditional passage over the Indian Ocean, Red Sea and the Suez Canal.

Commercial development in the Arctic will truly touch oil and gas reserves around Russian and Norwegian Arctic coast. It is estimated that there is a potential of 845 million m3 hydrocarbon resources in the North Sea, 780 million m3 in the Norwegian Sea and almost 950 million m3 in the Barents Sea around Russian North and Svalbard.

However, there are still commercial rationales and risks involved in the decision making process as of the geological uncertainties in the Arctic Region. Proven reserves would secure the companies´ financial plans and allow the sooner exploitation.

Expectation to keep the price of oil in the 80$ – 120$ range requires lowering the cost of production which leads to infrastructure development. It is however expected that other Arctic developments, such as offshore Greenland, with the high production cost, would require major investment in order to stay profitable. To date, Cairn Energy is the only company undertaking exploration in the Greenland Sea. The registered investment of over 1bn $ has not brought a major success. Greenland´s state – owned company, Nunaoil has shown the interest in the investment worth over 10bn$ in West Disko and in the Baffin Bay. Both plans are due in 2040.

International Energy Agency predicts that the total investments in the oil and gas sector would reach 20,000bn$ between 2012 and 2038. Russia´s great contribution of overall investment, going up to 50bn$ has been made by the Shtokman, far largest potential offshore Arctic project. In oil, TNK-BP plans to spend up to 10bn$ on developing onshore Arctic oilfields in the Yamal – Nenets Autonomous Area, with exports to Asia from 2015 – 2016.

Canada and United States also renewed their interests in the Arctic. Shell, ConocoPhillips, Statoil, Repsol and Eni won exploration leases for the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas in 2008, paying out a total of 2.66bn$.

There are many reasons for shipping and drilling companies to put their interests in the Arctic. Northern hemisphere has been much less geologically explored than other regions in the world. It logically gives a chance to discover the world class deposits. However the challenges and drawbacks are almost as many as opportunities. Remoteness, lack of infrastructure and difficult weather conditions which can disturb the production schedules are current logistical bottlenecks.

Source: Arctic Opening: Opportunity and Risk in the High North

May 31, 2012
International Polar Year 2012

Under the auspices of International Polar Year, co – sponsored by the International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization, more than 3,000 scientists from all over the world came together during the IPY 2012 ´”From Knowledge to Action” Conference, to greatly contribute to this knowledge sharing and current Arctic problems solving initiative.

International Polar Year (IPY) was initiated as international cooperative research dynamism and first introduced in 1882-1883. Its main objective was and still is, to provide scientific information about the fundamentals of meteorology and geophysics as well as to enhance all people’s knowledge and awareness about Polar Regions and associated, ongoing changes in both, opposite poles.

The initial idea of international cooperative polar research came from an Austro-Hungarian explorer and naval officer Lt. Karl Weyprecht who was a scientist and co-commander of the Austro-Hungarian Polar Expedition of 1872-74. Many of the earth’s unique phenomena, such as circulatory systems for air and water and the Earth’s magnetic field lines reach the surface in the polar areas. In addition, thick glaciers have trapped air and water from ancient times, which makes it easiest to observe these phenomena near the poles.

Weyprecht realized that a comprehensive polar research could not be a task of a one nation only, but should involve a coordinated international effort. He recognized that a time of mere geographical discovery had past and a series of coordinated expeditions dedicated to scientific research should be undertaken to further peoples understanding on fundamentals of meteorology and geophysics.

Unfortunately, he died before the international research became a reality, but his inspiration led to an establishment of the largest coordinated series of scientific expeditions ever undertaken in the Arctic during the 19^th century, or to what is now known as the First International Polar Year.

The first IPY was announced between the years of 1881 – 1883, where eleven nations came together to establish fourteen principal research stations across the Polar Regions.

The Second IPY, which took place in 1932 – 1933, was both proposed and promoted by the International Meteorological Committee. The main objective of the second research initiative was to investigate the global implications of the newly discovered “Jet Stream” and to conduct magnetic, aurora and meteorological observations at a network of research stations in the Arctic and Antarctic. It gathered researchers from more than forty different countries and came out as a great success in terms of scientific contribution.

The third IPY was dedicated to the research on technology and science in the upper atmosphere and it was finally renamed to become International Geophysical Year (IGY).

The fourth IPY took place in 2007 – 2008 and happened to become the gigantic international scientific project with close to 10 000 scientists and 50 000 other participants from over 60 countries. The aim was to significantly increase the scientific knowledge and understanding of the polar areas and to conduct research projects beyond the resources of individual countries.

This year´s event took place in Montreal, Canada between 22^nd and 27^th of April. Main objective of the initiative was bringing the knowledge from former gatherings into action, as suggested by the conference’s theme. IPY 2012 drew attention of more than 3,000 international scientists to the Polar Regions, related ongoing challenges of globalization and climate change plus social and economical issues. Participants included Arctic and Antarctic researchers from all over the world and various fields of expertise such as policy and decision making, law, academia, industry and environment, representatives of non – governmental and non – profit organizations and circumpolar communities, including indigenous peoples from Russia and Northern Canada.

The conference welcomed speakers from various Arctic related disciplines, including experienced professionals, early career scientists and graduate students. They had a chance to perform during parallel sessions and feature presentations on the latest results from the natural, social, indigenous and health research.

Each day of the conference began with a keynote session and the plenary panel discussion. Matters generally touched on current environmental and political changes in the Polar Regions. They were addressed by experienced Polar officials from eight Arctic states and led to promotion of science based decision making process for the Polar Regions as well as cooperation and partnership with international industries, particularly focused on oil and gas exploitation. In addition, keynote sessions succeeded on bringing indigenous matters to the public awareness with the specific focus on environmental, health and social problems.

The integration of scientific research with the indigenous knowledge was the important aspect of this year´s conference. Representatives of the communities from Russia and Northern Canada shared the extensive intimate knowledge about the Arctic ecosystems in which they have lived for millennia. The deep understanding of the indigenous relationship with unique Arctic ecosystem, fate control, culture and spiritualism, greatly contributed to the holistic understanding of the Arctic.

The IPY 2012 invited participants for indigenous knowledge exchange panels as well as offered a space for action forums which brought up interactive discussions on current issues facing the Polar Regions. Discussions combined the knowledge from various disciplines and sectors including industry, policy, civil society, academics and indigenous representatives.

Verity of workshops was available to all participants, concentrating on introducing science to policy makers and vice versa. Implementing current scientific knowledge and adjusting to ongoing changes was the main objective for the workshops organizers. Stimulating talks from Arctic Community members encouraged academics from educational institutions to try new spectrum of activities, experiments and lessons that would be possible to be adapted in their own classrooms. Association of Polar Early Career Scientists held the workshop on career development during the first two days of IPY 2012.

Conference delegates had a chance to complement their active participation in the sessions with a number of different tours, including technical and cultural tours, which were being offered through the whole week and were organized by local, polar – related facilities such as Canadian Space Agency, Ouranos Climate Change Research Consortium, Effigis, and Canadian Meteorological Center. Participants could visit the old port in Montreal, where CCGS Amundsen research icebreaker is currently based and opened for public visitors.

The experience of Inuit culture could be accomplished at the Avataq Museum Reserve, where the collection of close to 2000 Inuit works is placed. McCord Museum, which since 1967 has been promoting the works of artistes from Nunavik in Northern Quebec, presented the Modern Inuit Exhibition.

The IPY 2012 ´´From Knowledge to Action´´ was one of these year´s most important scientific gatherings for polar science and governance, climate change impacts and adaptation. More than 3,000 participants attended the conference which was more that pre – registered.

Please, visit our online gallery to see more pictures from IPY 2012 “From Knowledge to Action”.

Text: Arctic Portal

May 4, 2012
IPY 2012 – From Knowledge to Action

The International Polar Year – IPY 2007-2008 will be wrapped up for the final time next week 22-27 April in Montréal in the “From Knowledge to Action – IPY 2012 Conference”. The conference will bring together nearly 2300 participants in 4 plenary panels, 156 parallel sessions and 12 high-level action forums on Polar research engaging Arctic and Antarctic researchers, policy- and decision-makers, and a broad range of interested parties from academia, industry, non-government, education and circumpolar communities including indigenous peoples.

International Polar Year (IPY) is an international cooperative research initiative with an objective to provide scientific information about the fundamentals of meteorology and geophysics as well as further people’s knowledge on the Polar Regions.

The First International Polar Year was held between 1881-1883. Eleven nations took part in establishing fourteen principal research stations across the Polar Regions. Twelve research stations were located in the Arctic, along with at least 13 auxiliary stations, and two in the Antarctic. A vast amount of information was gathered between 1881 and 1884, but in the lack of a centralized coordination of analysis and publication of the results, no fundamental discoveries were made as a result of the first IPY. Each state published their observations independently and the International Polar Commission dissolved in the aftermath of the project.

The Second International Polar Year was both proposed and promoted by the International Meteorological Committee. The main objective of the second research initiative was to investigate the global implications of the newly discovered “Jet Stream” and to conduct magnetic, auroral and meteorological observations at a network of research stations in the Arctic and Antarctic. Some 40 countries participated in the establishment of 40 permanent observation stations in both Arctic and Antarctic. Following, the data collected during the two-year period became the foundation of the International Meteorological Organization and promoted further research, such as the International Geophysical Year (IGY), 1957-1958, often called the third International Polar Year, which celebrated the 75th and 25th anniversaries of the First and Second IPYs.

The latest International Polar Year 2007-2008, the one celebrated at the Montréal Conference, was organized through the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). It was gigantic international multidisciplinary collaborative with around 10 000 scientists and 50 000 other participants from over 60 countries. Main objectives of this megaproject were to significantly increase the scientific knowledge and understanding of the polar areas, especially the wide-ranging and significant impacts of climate warming in the Arctic and Antarctic, and to conduct research projects beyond the resources of individual countries.

In addition, the Polar Year 2007-2008 aimed at educating a new generation of polar scientists and engineers and raise awareness of the public and policymakers of the importance of the polar areas for the entire planet. The disciplinary breadth of the third IPY far exceeded the previous Polar Years of 1882, 1932 and the 1957 IGY providing more comprehensive picture of the polar areas.

The “IPY 2012 – From Knowledge to Action” Conference will contribute to the translation of new polar scientific findings into an evidence-based agenda for action that will influence global decisions, policies and outcomes over the coming years.

To learn more about the IPY 2007-2008, please page through the ICSU/WMO IPY Joint Committee summary “Understanding Earth’s Polar Challenges: International Polar Year 2007-2008”. The comprehensive, 720p. summary of IPY activities covers the development of IPY 2007–2008 for almost a decade, from 2001 till summer 2010 and demonstrates the extensive and essential contribution made by participating nations and organizations, and provides a prospective blueprint for future polar research.

April 17, 2012
System of Individual Transferable Quotas

Various characteristics of Icelandic economy seem to confirm the fact, that an affluent society, where the GDP per capita in 2007 was $66,240.30, is heavily dependent on the fisheries. According to recent analysis, export of fish products in foreign trade, account for around 75% of all marine goods export in Iceland and 50% of the foreign exchange income from marine goods in general.

Following these statistics, it was found out that the total, direct and indirect fisheries’ contribution is estimated to be within the borders of 40% – 45% of GDP and might differ around 5% by looking at different sources. Using other words, without the fishery based economy, Icelandic GDP would be estimated as 60% of the current one. However, not only the state’s economy is strongly based on fisheries.

The analysis must take into account, that the fisheries determine the major of citizens personal, individual income and income distribution, and what is more, in some part of Iceland as for instance West Fiords, around Husavik or Ólafsfjordur and many others, they are virtually the only basis for any economic activity. More than 40 different kinds of species in Iceland are harvested for the commercial purpose and the total annual catch in recent years, up to 2008, has fluctuated around 1.5 up to 2.2 million metric tons.

It would be worth to mention, that according to the statistics from 2008, the most significant species for Icelandic fisheries are cod, which accounts for about 30% of total catch, beside that one, very valuable are also haddock, redfish and pollock which percentage in total catch can be generally estimated for around 15 % of a total catch.

According to the latest news, there has been certain tendency regarding development of property rights in fisheries. Some of the European countries as Denmark, including Faroe Islands, United Kingdom or Ireland, performed the National Quota Management, some of them as Netherlands, New Zealand and Iceland, implemented the ITQs system. It has to be mentioned, that Iceland, where the private property has been generally believed to be fundamental to motivate the economy efficiency and productivity on land, took a leading role in this development and as one of the first countries to introduce individual vessel quotas and individual transferable quotas in major offshore fisheries.

Historical data show that in Iceland, vessel catch quotas were implemented in 1975 in the herring fishery, in 1979 these were made transferable, and in the 1980s started to be used in all fisheries within exclusive economic zone and Icelandic vessels operating outside of this area, creating the current ITQ system.

Addressing this discussion, it seems to be necessarily to analyze the conventional property rights in Iceland from the legal point of view. Icelandic property rights are neither fixed nor absolute and recognized as sort of privilege which allows to exclude others form some benefits. This concept places the one who holds the rights in certain position in respect to the others who are obligated to follow those rules.

On the other hand, the legal theory states that property right is an aggregate and collection of rights. In this bundle we have to include the authority to control something and to dispose it to the others. The concept behind the implementation of ITQs system lays in the theory that it is a right to fish which is a subject of the concept, not the ownership of marine natural resources itself. It shows to be obvious that no one can posses the rights to the fish unless it has been caught. The natural marine resources are the common property of Icelandic nation.

Current ITQs system has been based on the general provisions of the property rights. It was implemented by the Icelandic Fisheries Management Act of 1990 and changed through next two decades. The last alteration of this document took place in 2006 and provides with the essential features of current ITQ system. Though there might be notice disjunction between the art.1 and art. 4 of the FMA where the first states: “The exploitable marine stocks of the Icelandic fishing banks are the common property of the Icelandic nation.´ while the other seems to negate this statement: “No one may pursue commercial fishing in Icelandic waters without having a general fishing permit.”

This allows to come to the conclusion, that the Icelandic fisheries management system is the closed shop system. Regarding ITQs, this feature puts an emphasis on their exclusive nature. It seems to occur as self evident, that one licensee cannot exclude all others from fishing. Analyzing the document, it can be said that the parties which enjoy a fishing license, in the same time enjoy the exclusive right to run commercial or professional fisheries in Icelandic waters. According to the FMA, current quota system represents shares in total allowable catch. TAC is set annually by the Minister of Fisheries and based on the recommendation from the Marine Research Institute which on the other hand relies on the information from the fishermen and researchers. All commercial fishing activities are subject to these quotas. Currently there are 15 species which are subject to TAC and in the same time to ITQs system. The quota share is multiplied by the TAC to give the quantity which each vessel is concerned during the fishing year in question. This is referred to as the vessels´ catch quota. Permanent quota shares and annual catch quotas are divisible and transferable to other fishing vessels. The allocation of quotas is subject to a fishing fee. Individual enterprises may not control more than the equivalent of 12% of the value of the total quotas allocated for all species, and 12% to 35% for individual species.

The dispute arises when the one starts to think about the transferability of both, TAC and ITQ. The rule says that both of them can be transferred without any restrictions, though the Ministry of Fisheries must agree to distribute them fairly among the geographical regions. After it is done, according to the FMA we can point out the option, where the holder of an ITQ can, wholly of partly transfer its share to another licensed vessel. New regulations implemented in 1990 made it very common to sell the share by private holders, because the extreme amount of money was offered by the big enterprises.

Icelandic ITQs system has or could have, great impact on economic efficiency and what fallows, the maximization of wealth not only among the quota holders but also other citizens who, indirectly benefit from fisheries industry. By implementing ITQs system in Iceland, the interest in the fisheries, coming from big national corporations, was noticed. Those companies, larger entitles different from the Icelandic government, began to actually achieve economy of scale, what means that they were able to give out the product on the lower cost, what means the lower price, because of the progressing massive production and fish processing.

While the ITQs system is being implemented, decision making process starts to depend on the market and current economic situation, rather than being done by non market focused entitles in bureaucratic way, what means faster and more efficient for economy ways. Iceland seems to be very good example for such an observations but similarity might be noticed also in New Zealand, where actually the government’s fishery policy became more efficient when the private sector started to provide with services as opposed to the public ones.

Icelandic ITQ system, shares some of the features with its utopist idea of its impact on economic efficiency. However, there are particular aspects of this dimension, which differ from the theoretical ideal and subtract from its economic efficiency. In the Icelandic ITQ system, which is strongly associated with fishing vessels, only those who actually own vessels with a valid fishing license, can own quotas. What is more, the total holdings of quotas cannot exceed the fishing capacity of the vessel in question. This regulation severely restricts the set of potential holders of ITQs and clearly subtracts from the ability of the quota market to generate the most economically beneficial allocation of those.

The Fisheries Management Act of 1990 implemented a clause setting a limit on the quota holdings of any single vessel, what stated that no vessel can have a larger TAC share than it could catch within the fishing year. Art.13 of FMA states the maximum fishing quota share for fishing vessels owned by individual parties, whether natural or legal persons, or owned by connected parties. Nevertheless, it came to the point that eleven largest firms in Iceland hold about 33% of the demersal quotas and about 32% of all ITQs. Fifty biggest harvesting companies, in 1997 (the last available data) held more than 60% in all ITQs in the beginning of that fishing year.

Icelandic ITQs system increases the economic efficiency by lowering the cost of harvesting, cost of production and price of the out coming product. It allows cheaper labor power and decrease the time spent on the sea by the single fisherman. After actual implementation of ITQs, the human’s migration from small villages in the far north or north – east, down to bigger agglomerations, where the large companies are operating, was noticed. Versions of the ITQs fisheries management have been occurring in Icelandic fisheries since early 1980s and its performance should be considered objectively. The evidence on the economic benefits of the ITQ system is becoming clearer and the TAC for some species will be increased in the near future. The regional impact of the ITQs system shall be taken into account.

Source: Center of the Icelandic Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture

March 29, 2012
Permafrost

Permafrost covers a large area of the Arctic and a total of 25% of the earth surface. But what is it and why is it in the focal point of contemporary climate change research.

What is Permafrost?

Permafrost is defined as ground (soil or rock included ice or organic material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years. Therefore, the ground is permanently frozen, hence the name Permafrost.

Most of the permafrost that exists today was formed during cold glacial periods. It has persisted through interglacial periodsthe last 10,000 years. Relatively shallow permafrost (30 to 70 meters) was formed during the last 6,000 years and some during the Little Ice Age (from 400 to 150 years ago). In continental interiors, permafrost temperatures at the boundaries between continuous and discontinuous permafrost areas are generally about -5°C, corresponding roughly with the -8°C mean annual air temperature.

Permafrost in mid- and low- latitude mountains is warm and its distribution is closely related to characteristics of the land surface, slope gradient and orientation, vegetation patterns, and snow cover.

Subsea permafrost occurs close to 0°C over large areas of the Arctic continental shelf, where it was formed during the last glacial period on the exposed shelf landscapes.

Permafrost is geographically continuous beneath the ice-free regions of the Antarctic continent and occurs beneath areas in which the ice sheet is frozen to its bed.

Why is it important?

Climate scientists have predicted that global warming will warm the earth of at least two degrees Celsius by the year 2100. Some say the figure could rise to 5 degrees. This will have significant effects on permafrost regions.

Climate change will lead to the earths warming, therefore melting large permafrost areas. The projections are that permafrost will though not disappear completely. A projected decline in the extent of permafrost will have a major impact on the Earth ecosystem, affecting global climate through the mobilization of carbon and nitrogen stored in permafrost.

The largest permafrost areas are in Siberia, where the thickest permafrost can also be found. In Central Siberia the soil can be frozen to a depth of over 1500 meters. Permafrost is also common in Alaska and Canada. Click the map on the right to expand it and see the main permafrost areas.

On the southern fringes of permafrost areas, where the permafrost is already relatively warm, it could disappear completely. Further north, much more soil could melt – perhaps up to 80 centimeters deep instead of 50 centimeters, as it is today.

In all these areas fauna and flora have to adjust. Where the soil was previously dry, it could become wet. Conversely, areas with many lakes can suddenly dry up, because of the thawing permafrost. The thawing can become so severe, that the permafrost becomes permeable and the lake water will seep into the underlying ground.

But humans could ultimately be effected as well, and in fact already have. In Siberia, railway lines have subsided and therefore are ruined. Many areas, in Siberia especially, could be affected since many things are built on permafrost. When the ground thaws, the foundation can fall, like the case with the railway lines. Same applies to some airport runways, roads and households, both in Siberia, Alaska and Canada.

Thawing permafrost can further make Oil pipelines unstable both in Russia, Alaska and Canada. The Trans-Alaskan pipeline system is in some places built on permafrost. If it would fall it could cause a major disaster. Houses have also fallen because of permafrost thaw, like the picture at the top shows.

Another aspect of the permafrost thaw is the methane buried under it. The effects of such greenhouse gas releaseare still unknown and further research on this is both needed and due. General consensus is that the permafrost thaw will lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

PAGE21

As noted, further research is necessary. Currently, numerous prestige institutions are working together within the “PAGE21 – Changing Permafrost in the Arctic and its Global Effects in the 21st Century” project to better understand the feedbacks of the Arctic permafrost carbon and nitrogen pools to global climate change..

PAGE21 will aim to understand and quantify the vulnerability of permafrost environments to a changing global climate, and to investigate the feedback mechanisms associated with increasing greenhouse gas emissions from permafrost zones.

This research will make use of a unique set of Arctic permafrost investigations performed at stations that span the full range of Arctic bioclimatic zones. The project will bring together the best European permafrost researchers and eminent scientists from Canada, Russia, the USA, and Japan.

The four year project, coordinated by Dr. Hans-Wolfgang Hubberten at the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany, will contribute directly to the existing permafrost monitoring frameworks to further research into permafrost and climate change and works in close connection with members of the IPCC 5th Assessment Working Group.

Sources:

International Permafrost Association

Alfred Wegener Institution

PAGE21 website

Images:

Permafrost soil stone formations, Kongsfjord (Peter Prokosch – Grida.no)

Sinking seawall in Shishmaref in N. Alaska (Photo: Lawrence Hislop – Grida.no)

March 28, 2012
Aquaculture in the Arctic

Aquaculture is an important part of the food sector in the world. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.

Aquaculture is predominantly for human consumption. Aquaculture accounted for 45,7% of fish consumption in the world in 2008. It has grown rapidly over the last 50-60 years, the annual production in 1950 was around 1 million tons compared to 52.500 thousand tons in 2008.

Some nations have a long history of aquaculture but Asia dominates the world production, around 88,8% of the world aquaculture production comes from Asia. China alone is responsible for 62,3% of that.

China produced around 32.736 thousand tons in 2008. India is next (3479 t), Vietnam (2462 t) and then Indonesia, Thailand and Bangladesh all between 1000 and 2000 thousand tons.

Norway is next with 844.000 tons, the largest of the Arctic states, and USA has 500.000 million. Russia was under 100.000 tons, Canada 15.360 tons and Iceland only around 5000 tons.

The Arctic states produce enormous amounts of fish product s with aquaculture. The industry is a complicated process, if properly regulated; aquaculture can provide good opportunities for local development without large impacts on the ecosystem. Poorly managed and poorly regulated aquaculture, however, can have severe negative impacts through the release of excessive nutrients and chemicals, as well as escapes of farmed fish and the risk of disease transfer.

More stable and predictable production volumes, as well as large markets in the EU and the US, are among the advantages of aquaculture, the farming of marine organisms, seen from a business perspective. Salmon and trout are common industries both in Norway and USA to a large scale. Other countries participate as well.

The expansion of the aquaculture industry gives rise to two overriding concerns: the intrusion of fish farms into vulnerable marine and coastal areas, and the overall sustainability of an industry that depends on large catches of wild fish to feed farmed fish.

Below is an overview of agriculture in the eight Arctic states.

Norway (844.000 tones): Intensive farming of Atlantic salmon is by far the most important activity, accounting for more than 80 percent of the total Norwegian aquaculture production. Rainbow trout is also important and several marine finfish (cod, halibut) and shellfish species (blue mussel, oysters) are in the process of becoming commercialized. Ninety-five percent of Norwegian production is exported with the EU being the main market.

USA (500.000 tones): The aquaculture industry in the United States of America has become well established over the last 35 years but faces significant challenges to maintain continued growth. The mainstay of the industry is the production of channel catfish which occurs largely in earthen ponds in the southeastern States of Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Alabama. Catfish represent 81 percent of the 287.132 tons of finfish produced in 2008. There is a steady incline of total production from 1950 when it was around 50.000 tons. The peak was in 2003 when it went over 600.000 tons. But generally since then the number is around 500.000 tons. By law, aquaculture is federally defined as agriculture in the USA.

Canada (140.000 tones): The aquaculture industry in Canada is a dynamic sector which has experienced significant growth since 2000 primarily as a result of increases in production of Atlantic salmon in marine net pens. The salmon farms are located in sheltered waters of the Pacific Ocean off of British Columbia, and in the Atlantic Maritime provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Atlantic salmon sales generated 88 percent of the aquaculture industry’s total value in 2010 and 70 percent of tonnage.

Russia (100.000 tones): There are four types of aquaculture activity in the Russian Federation: pasturable, ponds, industrial and recreational. There are 295 freshwater fish species in the water bodies of the Russian Federation. 63 fish species, crustacean species and mollusks are reared artificially. 27 fish breeds, crossbreeds as well as 9 domesticated forms of carp, salmon, sturgeon, coregonid and cichlid fish are now cultivated. In this century the production is around 100.000 tons annually.

Denmark (36.000 tones): Ranking sixth in the world’s leading exporters of fish products, Denmark has a strong position in fish production and aquaculture has a long and well established tradition in the country. The main product produced is rainbow trout from freshwater ponds and mariculture units, the latter also producing roe as an important by-product. Eel is farmed in recirculated freshwater tank systems; mussels and oysters are produced in minor quantities and turbot fry is exported for further on growing. A variety of other species are raised primarily for restocking which represents an increasing share of total turnover.

Finland (15.000 tones): With decreasing catches of wild salmon in the Baltic Sea, aquaculture became a commercial activity in the 1970s and intensified in the 1980s. Most of the aquaculture installations are located in coastal areas and mariculture is particularly important in the Archipelago Sea and along the west coast of Finland. The most important species in aquaculture is rainbow trout raised in sea cages, representing around 80 per cent of the total production from aquaculture. The rest consists of rainbow trout raised in freshwater ponds and a few other finfish. There is also farming of crayfish and production of fry and salmon for restocking purposes in the Baltic Sea.

Sweden (6500 tones): Rainbow is the dominant specie in Swedish aquaculture. Total production in 2003 was just over 6500 tons. Sea trout, arctic char and salmon are amongst other species. Aquaculture is not a big part of the fishing industry in Sweden. It has had a steady production of around 5000-7000 tons for the last 20 years.

Iceland (5000 tones): Aquaculture began in Iceland just before the year 1900 with the first attempts to fertilize and hatch salmonid ova and to release the emerging fry into rivers. During the period 1985-90 a large-scale build up of salmonid farms took place. Most of these farms became bankrupt, however, and the nineties were characterized by stagnation in production. In the nineties, Icelandic scientist and farmers worked on developing aquaculture of species such as Atlantic halibut, turbot, abalone and Atlantic cod. From 2000 onwards, the main increase has occurred in the production of Atlantic salmon, Arctic char and Atlantic cod. Since 2004 Iceland has produces around 5000 tons annually with aquaculture.

Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , Grida , Fisheries.is , ACIA Report

March 16, 2012
Nordic Council of Ministers

The cornerstone of Nordic cooperation is the Nordic Council, which represents Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland.

The “Norden” consists of two separate but interoperable entities, The Nordic Council, an official inter-parliamentary body, and the Nordic Council of Ministers, a forum for Nordic inter-governmental cooperation. In addition to the Council and the Council of Ministers, there are more than 20 official Nordic institutions – and about the same number of unofficial ones. The Nordic Innovation Centre (NICe), NordForsk, Nordic Culture Point, Nordic Project Fund (NOPEF), the Nordic Centre for Welfare and Social Issues and the Nordic School of Public Health (NHV) are full Nordic institutions, as are the Nordic houses in Iceland and the Faroe Islands. One of the main institutions in the second category is the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB), which has been jointly owned by the five Nordic and three Baltic states since 2005. Another key organisation is the Nordic Cultural Fund, which supports culture in the Region as well as Nordic projects elsewhere in the world.

The Nordic Council is the official inter-parliamentary body. Formed in 1952, it has 87 elected members from Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, as well as the three autonomous territories (Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Åland). The members are all national MPs nominated by the party groups in their home parliaments. There are no direct elections to the Council. It is run by a Presidium and convenes for an annual autumn meeting called the Session, which passes recommendations to the national governments. The main priorities in the work of the Nordic Council are: climate, environment and energy; education and research; and welfare and culture.

The cornerstone of the cooperation is The Helsinki Treaty, which regulates official cooperation between Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. It was signed on 23 March 1962 and came into force on 1 July 1962. The main objective of the treaty is to maintain and develop further co-operation between the Nordic countries in the legal, cultural, social and economic fields, as well as in those of transport and communications and environmental protection. In addition, the treaty establishes a foundation for joint positioning in matters of common interest which are dealt with by European and other international organisations and conferences.

The Council of Ministers is the official inter-governmental body. The prime ministers have overall responsibility for its work. In practice, this responsibility is delegated to the ministers for Nordic cooperation and the Nordic Co-operation Committee, which co-ordinates the day-to-day work. Despite its name, the Council of Ministers, which was founded in 1971, consists of several councils. These councils meet a couple of times a year. At present, there are 11 of them.

On of the areas of Nordic cooperation is the Arctic. The Nordic countries cooperate to improve the quality of life for the indigenous peoples in the northern areas and to promote social and cultural development for the Arctic people. Nordic cooperation also strives to protect the sensitive and characteristic Arctic nature, and to ensure sustainable use of the region’s resources, and protection of its biological diversity.

An Advisory Expert Committee was established in conjunction with the adoption of the new Arctic Co-operation Programme in 2002. The Arctic Expert Committee is made up of Nordic members of the Arctic Council and representatives from the autonomous territories. In Nordic Council terms the Arctic Expert Committee will offer advice to the Ministers for Co-operation and the Nordic Co-operation Committee on matters relating to the Arctic.

Following the increasing importance of the Arctic region in international politics, the Nordic Council will discuss the controversial question of a Nordic strategy for the Arctic Region in its meeting in Reykjavik, 21-23 March, 2012 . The meeting will also discuss oil extraction in the Arctic and recommendations for allocating responsibilities in the event of environmental incidents. A plenary session will be in the Icelandic parliament on Friday 23 March, 08:30-11:45 local time.

Sources: Norden.org, Nordic Co-operation

March 9, 2012
What is Permafrost?

Permafrost covers a large area of the Arctic and a total of 25% of the earth surface. But what is it and why is it in the focal point of contemporary climate change research.

What is Permafrost?

Permafrost is defined as ground (soil or rock and included ice or organic material) that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years. Therefore, the ground is permanently frozen, hence the name Permafrost.

Most of the permafrost that exists today was formed during cold glacial periods. It has persisted through interglacial periods the last 10,000 years. Relatively shallow permafrost (30 to 70 meters) was formed during the last 6,000 years and some during the Little Ice Age (from 400 to 150 years ago). In continental interiors, permafrost temperatures at the boundaries between continuous and discontinuous permafrost areas are generally about -5°C, corresponding roughly with the -8°C mean annual air temperature.

Permafrost in mid- and low- latitude mountains is warm and its distribution is closely related to characteristics of the land surface, slope gradient and orientation, vegetation patterns, and snow cover.

Subsea permafrost occurs close to 0°C over large areas of the Arctic continental shelf, where it was formed during the last glacial period on the exposed shelf landscapes.

Permafrost is geographically continuous beneath the ice-free regions of the Antarctic continent and occurs beneath areas in which the ice sheet is frozen to its bed.

Why is it important?

Climate scientists have predicted that global warming will warm the earth of at least two degrees Celsius by the year 2100. Some say the figure could rise to 5 degrees. This will have significant effects on permafrost regions.

Climate change will lead to the earths warming, therefore melting large permafrost areas. The projections are that permafrost will though not disappear completely. A projected decline in the extent of permafrost will have a major impact on the Earth ecosystem, affecting global climate through the mobilization of carbon and nitrogen stored in permafrost.

The largest permafrost areas are in Siberia, where the thickest permafrost can also be found. In Central Siberia the soil can be frozen to a depth of over 1500 meters. Permafrost is also common in Alaska and Canada. Click the map on the right to expand it and see the main permafrost areas.

On the southern fringes of permafrost areas, where the permafrost is already relatively warm, it could disappear completely. Further north, much more soil could melt – perhaps up to 80 centimeters deep instead of 50 centimeters, as it is today.
In all these areas fauna and flora have to adjust. Where the soil was previously dry, it could become wet. Conversely, areas with many lakes can suddenly dry up, because of the thawing permafrost. The thawing can become so severe, that the permafrost becomes permeable and the lake water will seep into the underlying ground.

But humans could ultimately be effected as well, and in fact already have. In Siberia, railway lines have subsided and therefore are ruined. Many areas, in Siberia especially, could be affected since many things are built on permafrost. When the ground thaws, the foundation can fall, like the case with the railway lines. Same applies to some airport runways, roads and households, both in Siberia, Alaska and Canada.

Thawing permafrost can further make Oil pipelines unstable both in Russia, Alaska and Canada. The Trans-Alaskan pipeline system is in some places built on permafrost. If it would fall it could cause a major disaster. Houses have also fallen because of permafrost thaw, like the picture at the top shows.

Another aspect of the permafrost thaw is the methane buried under it. The effects of such greenhouse gas release are still unknown and further research on this is both needed and due. General consensus is that the permafrost thaw will lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

PAGE21

As noted, further research is necessary. Currently, numerous prestige institutions are working together within the “PAGE21 – Changing Permafrost in the Arctic and its Global Effects in the 21st Century” project to better understand the feedbacks of the Arctic permafrost carbon and nitrogen pools to global climate change.

PAGE21 will aim to understand and quantify the vulnerability of permafrost environments to a changing global climate, and to investigate the feedback mechanisms associated with increasing greenhouse gas emissions from permafrost zones.
This research will make use of a unique set of Arctic permafrost investigations performed at stations that span the full range of Arctic bioclimatic zones. The project will bring together the best European permafrost researchers and eminent scientists from Canada, Russia, the USA, and Japan.

The four year project, coordinated by Dr. Hans-Wolfgang Hubberten at the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany, will contribute directly to the existing permafrost monitoring frameworks to further research into permafrost and climate change and works in close connection with members of the IPCC 5^th Assessment Working Group.

Sources:International Permafrost Association I Alfred Wegener Institution I PAGE21 website

February 17, 2012